Damp-proof courses above ground.

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There should be a continuous horizontal dpc above ground in walls whose foundations are in contact with the ground, to prevent moisture from the ground rising through the foundation to the wall above ground, which otherwise would make wall surfaces damp and damage wall finishes. The dpc above ground should be continuous for the whole length and thickness of the wall and be at least 150 mm above finished ground level to avoid the possibility of a build up of material against the wall acting as a bridge for moisture from the ground as illustrated in Fig. 35.

Fig 35

Damp-proof courses.

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The function of a dpc is to act as a barrier to the passage of moisture or water between the parts separated by the dpc. The movement of moisture or water may be upwards in the foundation of walls and ground floors, downwards in parapets and chimneys or horizontal where a cavity wall is closed at the jambs of openings.

One of the functional requirements of walls (see C.hapter 2) is resistance to moisture. A requirement of the Building Regulations is that walls shall adequately resist the passage of moisture to the inside of the building. To meet this requirement it is necessary to form a barrier to moisture rising from the ground in walls. This barrier is the horizontal, above ground, dpc.

Materials for underfloor insulation.

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Any material used as an insulation layer to a solid, ground supported floor must be sufficiently strong and rigid to support the weight of the floor or the weight of the screed and floor loads without undue compression and deformation. To meet this requirement one of the rigid board or slab insulants is used. The thickness of the insulation is determined by the nature of the material from which it is made and the construction of the floor, to provide the required U value.

Some insulants absorb moisture more readily than others and some insulants may be affected by ground contaminants. Where the insulation layer is below the concrete floor slab, with the dpm above the insulation one of the insulants with low moisture absorption characteristics should be used.

The materials commonly used for floor insulation are rockwool slabs, extruded polystyrene, cellular glass and rigid polyurethane foam boards.

Resistance to the Passage of Heat.

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The requirements of the Building Regulations and practical advice in Approved Document L include provision for insulation to some ground floors. The requirement is that ground floors should have a maximum insulation value (U value) of 0.45 W/m2K. Some ground floor slabs that are larger than 10 m in both length and breadth may not need the addition of an insulating layer to provide the U value of 0.45.

Of the heat that is transferred through a solid, ground supported floor a significant part of the transfer occurs around the perimeter of the floor to the ground below, foundation walls and ground around the edges of the floor, so that the cost of insulating the whole floor is seldom justified. Insulation around or under the edges of a solid floor will significantly reduce heat losses to the extent that overall insulation is unnecessary.

In the CIBS guide to the thermal properties of building structures, the U value of an uninsulated solid floor 20 x 20 m on plan, with four edges exposed, is given as 0.36 W/m^2K and one 10 x lOm as 0.6 W/m2K. The 20 x 20 floor has a U value below that in the requirement of the Building Regulations and will not require insulation. The U value of a 10m2 floor can be reduced by the use of edge insulation. With edge insulation of a metre deep all around and under the floor, the U value can be reduced to 0.48 W/m^2K which is somewhat higher than the U value in the requirement of the Building Regulations and may necessitate some small overall insulation. This is the basis for the assumption that floor slabs that are larger than 10 m in both length and width may not need an overall insulation layer.

To reduce heat losses through thermal bridges around the edges of solid floors that do not need overall insulation, and so minimise problems of condensation and mould growth, it may be wise to build in edge insulation, particularly where the waIl insulation is not carried down below the ground floor slab. Edge insulation is formed either as a vertical strip between the edge of the slab and the wall or under the slab around the edges of the floor as illustrated in Fig. 32. The depth or width of the strips of insulation vary from 0.25 m to 1 m and the thickness of the insulation will be similar to that needed for overall insulation.

The only practical way of improving the insulation of a solid ground floor to the required U value is to add a layer of some material with a high insulation value to the floor. The layer of insulation may be laid below a chipboard or plywood panel floor finish or below a timber boarded finish or below the screed finish to a floor or under the concrete floor slab, With insulation under the screed or slab it is important that the density of the insulation board is sufficient to support the load of the floor itself and imposed loads on the floor. A density of at least 16 kg/rn^3 is recommended for domestic buildings.

The advantage of laying the insulation below the floor slab is that the high density slab, which warms and cools slowly (slow thermal response) in response to changes in temperature of the constant low output heating systems, will not lose heat to the ground. The damp- proof membrane may be laid under or over the insulation layer or under the floor screed. The damp-proof membrane should be under insulation that absorbs water and may be over insulation with low water absorption and high resistance to ground contaminants.

With the insulation layer and the dpm below the concrete floor slab it is necessary to continue the dpm and insulation up vertically around the edges of the slab to unite with the dpc in walls as illustrated in Fig. 33.

One method of determining the required thickness of insulation is to use a thickness of insulation related to the U value of the chosen insulation material, as for example thicknesses of 25 mm for a U value of 0.02 W/m^2K, 37 mm for 0.03 W/m^2K, 49 mm for 0.04 W/m^2K and 60 mm for 0.05 W/m^2K, ignoring the inherent resistance of the floor.

Another more exacting method is to calculate the required thickness related to the actual size of the floor and its uninsulated U value, taken from a table in the CIBS guide to the thermal properties of building structures. For example, from the CIBS table the U value of a solid floor 10 x 6m, with four edges exposed is 0.74 W/m^2K. 

These thicknesses are appreciably less than those given by the first method, shown in brackets.

Where the wall insulation is in the cavity or on the inside face of the wall it is necessary to avoid a cold bridge across the foundation wall and the edges of the slab, by fitting insulation around the edges of the slab or by continuing the insulation down inside the cavity, as illustrated in Fig. 34.
An advantage of fitting the dpm above the insulation is that it can be used to secure the upstand edge insulation in place while concrete is being placed.

The disadvantage of the dpm being below the concrete floor slab is that it will prevent the wet concrete drying out below and so lengthen the time required for it to adequately dry out, to up to 6 months. A concrete floor slab that has not been sufficiently dried out may adversely affect water sensitive floor finishes such as wood.

The advantage of laying the insulation layer under the screed is that it can be laid inside a sheltered building on a dried slab after the roof is finished and that the dpm, whether over or under the insulation layer, can more readily be joined to the dpc in walls, as illustrated in Fig. 34. Where the wall insulation is in the cavity it should be continued down below the floor slab to minimise the cold bridge across the wall to the screed as illustrated in Fig. 34.

If the dpm is laid below the insulation it is necessary to spread a separating layer over the insulation to prevent wet screed running into the joints between the insulation boards. The separating layer should be building paper or 500 gauge polythene sheet.

To avoid damage to the insulation layer and the dpm it is necessary to take care in tipping, spreading and compacting wet concrete or screed. Scaffold boards should be used for barrowing and tipping concrete and screed and a light mesh of chicken wire can be used over separating layers or dpms over insulation under screeds as added protection. 

Fig. 32 Perimeter insulation to ground slab.

Fig. 33 dpm over insulation under floor slab.

Fig. 34 dpm under insulation and screed.

Mastic asphalt or pitch mastic.

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These materials are spread hot and finished to a thickness of at least 12.5 mm. This expensive damp-proof membrane is used where there is appreciable water pressure under the floor and as ‘tanking’ to basements as described in Volume 4.

Bitumen sheet.

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Sheets of bitumen with hessian, fibre or mineral fibre base are spread on the concrete oversite or on a blinding of stiff concrete below the concrete, in a single layer with the joints between adjacent sheets lapped 75 mm.

The joints are then sealed with a gas torch which melts the bitumen in the overlap of the sheets sufficient to bond them together. Alternatively the lap is made with hot bitumen spread between the overlap of the sheets which are then pressed together to make a damp-proof joint. The bonded sheets may be carried across adjacent walls as a dpc, or up against the walls and then across as dpc where the membrane and dpc are at different levels.

The polythene or polyester film and self-adhesive rubber/bitumen compound sheets,under ‘Tanking’, can also be used as damp-proof membranes, with the purpose cut, shaped cloaks and gussets for upstand edges and angles. This type of membrane is particularly useful where the membrane is below the level of the dpe in walls.

Bitumen sheets, which may be damaged on building sites, should be covered for protection as soon as possible by the screed or site concrete.

Bitumen solution, bitumen/ rubber emulsion or tar/rubber emulsion.

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These cold applied solutions are brushed on to the surface of concrete in three coats to a finished thickness of not less than 2.5 mm, allowing each coat to harden before the next is applied.

Hot pitch or bitumen.

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A continuous layer of hot applied coal-tar pitch or soft bitumen is poured on the surface and spread to a thickness of not Less than 3 mm. In dry weather a concrete blinding layer is ready for the membrane 3 days after placing. The surface of the concrete should be brushed to remove dust and primed with a solution of coal-tar pitch or bitumen solution or emulsion. The pitch is heated to 35°C to 45°C and bitumen to 50°C to 55°C.

Properly applied pitch or bitumen layers serve as an effective damp-proof membrane both horizontally and spread up inside wall faces to unite with dpes in walls and require less patient application than plastic sheet materials.

Polythene and polyethylene sheet.

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Polythene or polyethylene sheet is commonly used as a damp-proof membrane with oversite concrete for all but severe conditions of dampness. It is recommended that the sheet should be at least 0.25 mm thick (1200 gauge). The sheet is supplied in rolls 4 m wide by 25 m long. When used under concrete oversite the sheet should be laid on a blinding layer of sand or compacted fuel ash spread over the hardcore.

The sheets are spread over the blinding and lapped 150 mm at joints and continued across surrounding walls, under the dpc for the thickness of the wall.

Where site conditions are reasonably dry and clean, the overlap joints between the sheets are sealed with mastic or mastic tape between the overlapping sheets and the joint completed with a
polythene jointing tape as illustrated in Fig. 29.

For this lapped joint to be successful the sheets must be dry and clean else the jointing tape will not adhere to the surface of the sheets and the joint will depend on the weight of the concrete or screed pressing the joint sufficiently heavily to make a watertight joint. As clean and dry conditions on a building site are rare, this type of joint should be only used where there is unlikely to be heavy absorption of ground moisture.
Where site conditions are too wet to use mastic and tape, the joint is made by welting the overlapping sheets with a double welted fold as illustrated in Fig. 30, and this fold is kept in place by weighing it down with bricks or securing it with tape until the screed or concrete has been placed. The double welt is formed by folding the edges of sheets together and then making a welt which is flattened.

The plastic sheet is effectively impossible to fold and so stiff and elastic that it will always tend to unfold so that it requires a deal of patience to fold, hold in place and then contrive to fold along the joint. By using the maximum size of sheet available it is possible to minimise the number of joints.

The sheet should be used so that there are only joints one way as it is impractical to form a welt at junctions of joints.

Where the level of the damp-proof membrane is below that of the dpc in walls it is necessary to turn it up against walls so that it can overlap the dpc or be. turned over as dpc as illustrated in Fig. 31. To keep the sheet in place as an upstand to walls it is necessary to keep it in place with bricks or blocks laid on the sheet against walls until the concrete has been placed and the bricks or blocks removed as the concrete is run up the wall.

At the internal angle of walls a cut is made in the upstand sheet to facilitate making an overlap of sheet at corners. These sheets which are commonly used as a damp-proof membrane will serve as an effective barrier to rising damp, providing they are not punctured or displaced during subsequent building operations.

Fig. 29 Jointing laps in polythene sheet.

Fig. 30 Double welted fold joint in polythene sheet.

 Fig. 31 Damp-proof membrane turn up.

Materials for damp-proof membrane.

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The materials used as damp-proof membrane must be impermeable to water both in liquid and vapour form and sufficiently robust to withstand damage by later building operations.

Damp-proof membrane below a floor screed.

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The oversite concrete is laid during the early stages of the erection of buildings. It is practice to lay floor finishes to solid ground floors after the roof is on and wet trades such as plastering are completed to avoid damage to floor finishes. By this time the site concrete will have thoroughly dried out. A layer of fine grained material such as sand and cement is usually spread and levelled over the surface of the dry concrete to provide a true level surface for a floor finish. As the wet finishing layer, called a screed, will not strongly adhere to dry concrete it is made at least 65 mm thick so that it does not dry too quickly and crack. Electric conduits and water service pipes are commonly run in the underside of the screed.

As an alternative to under concrete or surface damp-proof membranes a damp-proof membrane may be sandwiched between the site concrete and the floor screed, as illustrated in Fig. 28. At the junction of wall and floor the membrane overlaps the damp-proof course in the wall. 

 Fig. 28 Sandiwch damp-proof membrane.

Surface damp-proof membrane.

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Floor finishes such as pitch mastic and mastic asphalt that are impermeable to water can serve as a combined damp-proof membrane and floor finish. These floor finishes should be laid to overlap the damp-proof course in the wall as illustrated in Fig. 27 to seal the joint between the concrete and the wall.

Where hot soft bitumen or coal tar pitch are used as an adhesive for wood block floor finishes the continuous layer of the impervious adhesive can serve as a waterproof membrane.

The disadvantage of impervious floor finishes and impervious adhesives for floor finishes as a damp-proof membrane are that the concrete under the floor finish and the floor finish itself will he cold underfoot and make calls on the heating system and if the old floor finish is replaced with another there may be no damp-proof membrane. 

Fig. 27 Surface damp-proof menbrane.

Damp-proof membrane below site concrete.

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The obvious place to use a continuous damp-proof membrane is under the oversite concrete. The membrane is spread on a layer of comparatively dry concrete, clinker or ash which is spread and levelled over the hardcore as illustrated in Fig. 26. The edges of the membrane are turned up the face of external and internal walls ready for concrete laying so that it may unite and overlap the dpc in walls.

The membrane should be spread with some care to ensure that thin membranes are not punctured by sharp, upstanding particles in the blinding and that the edge upstands are kept in place as the concrete is laid.
The advantage of a damp-proof membrane under the site concrete is that it will be protected from damage during subsequent building operations. A disadvantage is that the membrane will delay the drying out of the oversite concrete that can only lose moisture by upwards evaporation to air.

Where underfioor heating is used the membrane should be under the concrete. 

Fig. 26 Below concrete damp-proof membrane.

Damp-Proof Membrane - Concrete.

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Concrete is spread oversite as a solid base for floors and as a barrier to moisture rising from the ground.

Concrete is to some degree permeable to water and will absorb moisture from the ground; a damp oversite concrete slab will be cold and draw appreciable heat from rooms.

A requirement of the Building Regulations is that floors shall adequately resist the passage of moisture to the inside of the building. As concrete is permeable to moisture, it is generally necessary to use a damp-proof membrane under, in or on top of ground supported floor slabs as an effective barrier to moisture rising from the ground. The membrane should be continuous with the damp-proof course in walls, as a barrier to moisture rising between the edges of the concrete slab and walls.

A damp-proof membrane should be impermeable to water in either liquid or vapour form and be tough enough to withstand possible damage during the laying of screeds, concrete or floor finishes. The damp-proof membrane may be on top, sandwiched in or under the concrete slab.

Being impermeable to water the membrane will delay the drying out of wet concrete to ground if it is under the concrete, and of screeds to concrete if it is on top of the concrete.

Made up ground - Soils.

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Areas of low lying ground near the coast and around rivers close to towns and cities have been raised by tipping waste, refuse and soil from excavations. Over the years the fill will have settled and consolidated to some extent. Areas of made up ground are often used for buildings as the towns and cities expand. Because of the varied nature of the materials tipped to fill and raise ground levels and the uncertainty of the bearing capacity of the fill, conventional foundations may well be unsatisfactory as a foundation. 

An example of made up ground is the area of Westminster now known as Pimlico where the soil excavated during the construction of the London docks was transported by barge to what was low lying land that was usually flooded when high tides and heavy rainfall caused the Thames river to overflow. The raised land was subsequently heavily built on.

A uniformly stable, natural, sound foundation may well be some 3 or more metres below the surface of made up ground. To excavate to that level below the surface for conventional strip foundations would be grossly uneconomic. A solution is the use of piers on isolated pad foundations supporting reinforced concrete ground beams on which walls are raised, as illustrated in Fig. 4.

Fig.4 Pad foundation.

Metamorphic Rocks.

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Metamorphic rocks such as slates and schists are those changed from igneous, sedimentary or from soils into metamorphic by pressure or heat or both. These rocks vary from dense slates in which the layers of the material are barely visible to schists in which the layers of various minerals are clearly visible and may readily split into thin plates. Because of the mode of the formation of these rocks the layers or planes rarely lie horizontal in the ground and so generally provide an unsatisfactory or poor foundation.

Oversite Concrete (Concrete Oversite).

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On firm non-cohesive subsoils and rocks such as sand, gravel and sound rock beds which are near the surface, under vegetable top soil and are well drained or dry it is satisfactory to lay the concrete oversite directly on a bed of hardcore or broken rock rubble as there is little likelihood of any appreciable amount of moisture rising and being absorbed by the concrete. The concrete is laid within the confines of the external walls and load bearing internal walls and consolidated and levelled to a thickness of 100 mm ready for solid floor finishes or a raised ground floor.

On much of the low lying land that is most suitable for building, the subsoil such as clay retains moisture which will tend to rise through a hardcore bed to concrete oversite. The damp concrete will be cold underfoot and require additional energy from heating systems to maintain an equable indoor temperature. It is practice today to form a continuous layer of some material that is impervious to water under, in or over the concrete oversite as a damp-proof membrane on the site of all inhabited buildings where there is a likelihood of moisture rising to the concrete.

Soluble sulphates, Portland blast-furnace cement, Sulphate resiting Portland cement.

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Soluble sulphates.

There are water soluble suiphates in some soils, such as plastic clay, which react with ordinary cement and in time will weaken concrete. It is usual practice, therefore, to use one of the sulphate-resistant cements for concrete in contact with sulphate bearing soils.

Portland blast-furnace cement.

This cement is more resistant to the destructive action of suiphates than ordinary Portland cement and is often used for concrete foun dations in plastic clay subsoils. This cement is made by grinding a mixture of ordinary Portland cement with blast-furnace slag. Alternatively another type of cement known as ‘sulphate resisting cement’ is often used.

Sulphate resiting Portland cement.

 

This cement has a reduced content of aluminates that combine with soluble suiphates in some soils and is used for concrete in contact with those soils.

Ready-mixed concrete.

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The very many ready-mixed concrete plants in the United Kingdom are able to supply to all but the most isolated building sites. These plants prepare carefully controlled concrete mixes which are delivered to site by lorries on which the concrete is churned to delay setting. 

Because of the convenience and the close control of these mixes, much of the concrete used in building today is provided by ready-mixed suppliers. To order ready-mixed concrete it is only necessary to specify the prescribed mix, for example C lOP, the cement, type and size of aggregate and workability, that is medium or high workability, depending on the ease with which the concrete can be placed and compacted.

Concrete mixes.

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 British Standard 5328: Specifying concrete, including ready-mixed concrete, gives a range of mixes. One range of concrete mixes in the Standard, ordinary prescribed mixes, is suited to general building work such as foundations and floors. These prescribed mixes should be used in place of the traditional nominal volume mixes such as 1:3:6 cement, fine and coarse aggregate by volume, that have been used in the past. The prescribed mixes, specified by dry weight of aggregate, used with 100 kg of cement, provide a more accurate method of measuring the proportion of cement to aggregate and as they are measured against the dry weight of aggregate, allow for close control of the water content and therefore the strength of the concrete.

The prescribed mixes are designated by letters and numbers as C7.5P, C1OP, C15P, C2OP, C25P and C3OP. The letter C stands for ‘compressive’, the letter P for ‘prescribed’ and the number indicates the 28-day characteristic cube crushing strength in newtons per square millimetre (N/mm2) which the concrete is expected to attain. The prescribed mix specifies the proportions of the mix to give an indication of the strength of the concrete sufficient for most building purposes, other than designed reinforced concrete work.

Table 1 equates the old nominal volumetric mixes of cement and aggregate with the prescribed mixes and indicates uses for these mixes.

 Table 1. Concrete Mixes.

Proportioning materials.

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The materials used for mass concrete for foundations were often measured out by volume, the amount of sand and coarse aggregate being measured in wooden boxes constructed for the purpose. This is a crude method of measuring the materials because it is laborious to have to fill boxes and then empty them into mixers and no account is taken of the amount of water in the aggregate. The amount of water in aggregate affects the finished concrete in two ways: (a) if the aggregate is very wet the mix of concrete may be too weak, have an incorrect ratio of water to cement and not develop full strength and, (b) damp sand occupies a greater volume than dry. This increase in volume of wet sand is termed bulking.

The more accurate method of proportioning the materials for concrete is to measure them by weight. The materials used in reinforced concrete are commonly weighed and mixed in large concrete mixers. It is not economical for builders to employ expensive concrete mixing machinery for small buildings and the concrete for foundations, floors and lintels is usually delivered to site ready mixed, except for small batches that are mixed by hand or in a portable petrol driven mixer. The materials are measured out by volume and providing the concrete is thoroughly mixed, is not too wet and is properly consolidated the finished concrete is quite satisfactory.

Water-cement ratio.

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The materials used for making concrete are mixed with water for two reasons. Firstly to cause the reaction between cement and water which results in the cement acting as a binding agent and secondly to make the materials of concrete sufficiently plastic to be placed in position. The ratio of water to cement used in concrete affects its ultimate strength, and a certain water—cement ratio produces the best concrete. If too little water is used the concrete is so stiff that it cannot be compacted and if too much water is used the concrete does not develop full strength.

The amount of water required to make concrete sufficiently plastic depends on the position in which the concrete is to be placed. The extreme examples of this are concrete for large foundations, which can be mixed with comparatively little water and yet be consolidated, and concrete to be placed inside formwork for narrow reinforced concrete beams where the concrete has to be comparatively wet to be placed. In the first example, as little water is used, the proportion of cement to aggregate can be as low as say 1 part of cement to 9 of aggregate and in the second, as more water has to he used, the proportion of cement to aggregate has to be as high as say I part of cement to 4 of aggregate. As cement is expensive compared with aggregate it is usual to use as little water and therefore cement as the necessary plasticity of the concrete will allow.

Cement.

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The cement most used is ordinary Portland cement. It is manufactured by heating a mixture of finely powdered clay and limestone with water to a temperature of about 1200°C, at which the lime and clay fuse to form a clinker. This clinker is ground with the addition of a little gypsum to a fine powder of cement. Cement powder reacts with water and its composition gradually changes and the particles of cement bind together and adhere strongly to materials with which they are mixed. Cement hardens gradually after it is mixed with water.

Some thirty minutes to an hour after mixing with water the cement is no longer plastic and it is said that the initial set has occurred. About 10 hours after mixing with water, the cement has solidified and it increasingly hardens until some 7 days after mixing with water when it is a dense solid mass.

Fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.

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Fine aggregate is natural sand which has been washed and sieved to remove particles larger than 5 mm and coarse aggregate is gravel which has been crushed, washed and sieved so that the particles vary from 5 up to 50 mm in size. The fine and coarse aggregate are delivered separately. Because they have to be sieved, a prepared mixture of fine and coarse aggregate is more expensive than natural all-in aggregate. The reason for using a mixture of fine and coarse aggregate is that by combining them in the correct proportions, a concrete with very few voids or spaces in it can be made and this reduces the quantity of comparatively expensive cement required to produce a strong concrete.

All-in aggregate Ballast.

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All-in aggregate (ballast) is one of the cheapest materials that can be used for making concrete and is used for mass concrete work, such as large open foundations. The proportion of fine to coarse particles in an all-in aggregate cannot be varied and the proportion may vary from batch to batch so that it is not possible to control the mix and therefore the strength of concrete made with all-in aggregate. Accepted practice today is to make concrete for building from a separate mix of fine and coarse aggregate which is produced from ballast by washing, sieving and separating the fine from the coarse aggregate.

Aggregate.

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The materials commonly used as the aggregate for concrete are sand and gravel. The grains of natural sand and particles of gravel are very hard and insoluble in water and can be economically dredged or dug from pits and rivers. The material dug from many pits and river beds Consists of a mixture of sand and particles of gravel and is called ‘ballast’ or ‘all-in aggregate’. The name ballast derives from the use of this material to load empty ships and barges. The term ‘all-in aggregate’ is used to describe the natural mixture of fine grains of sand and larger coarse particles of gravel.

Concrete.

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Concrete is the name given to a mixture of particles of stone bound together with cement. Because the major part of concrete is of particles of broken stones and sand, it is termed the aggregate. The material which binds the aggregate is cement and this is described as the matrix.

-  Aggregate.

-  All-in aggregate Ballast.

-  Fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.

-  Cement.

-  Water-cement ratio.

-  Proportioning materials.

-  Concrete mixes.

-  Ready-mixed concrete.

-  Soluble sulphates, Portland blast-furnace cement, Sulphate resiting Portland cement.

Blinding.

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Before the oversite concrete is laid it is usual to blind the top surface of the hardcore. The purpose of this is to prevent the wet concrete running down between the lumps of broken brick or stone, as this would make it easier for water to seep up through the hardcore and would be wasteful of concrete. To blind, or seal, the top surface of the hardcore a thin layer of very dry coarse concrete can be spread over it, or a thin layer of coarse clinker or ash can be used, This blinding layer, or coat, will be about 50 mm thick, and on it the site concrete is spread and finished with a true level top surface. Figure 25 is an illustration of hardcore, blinding and concrete oversite. Even with a good hardcore bed below the site concrete a dense hard floor finish, such as tiles, may be slightly damp in winter and will be cold underfoot. To reduce the coldness experienced with some solid ground floor finishes it is good practice to form a continuous damp- proof membrane in the site concrete. 

Fig. 25 Hardcore and blinding.

Brick of tile rubble, Concrete rubble, Gravel and crushed hard rock, Chalk.

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brick of tile rubble

Clean, hard broken brick or tile is an excellent material for hardcore. Bricks should be free of plaster. On wet sites the bricks should not contain appreciable amounts of soluble sulphate.

concrete rubble

Clean, broken, well-graded concrete is another excellent material for hardcore. The concrete should be free from plaster and other building materials.

gravel and crushed hard rock

Clean, well-graded gravel or crushed hard rock are both excellent, but somewhat expensive materials for hardcore.

chalk  


Broken chalk is a good material for hardcore providing it is protected from expansion due to frost. Once the site concrete is laid it is unlikely to be affected by frost.

Hardcore - Name given to the infill of materials.

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Hardcore is the name given to the infill of materials such as broken bricks, stone or concrete, which are hard and do not readily absorb water or deteriorate. This hardcore is spread over the site within the external walls of the building to such thickness as required to raise the finished surface of the site concrete. The hardcore should be spread until it is roughly level and rammed until it forms a compact bed for the oversite concrete. This hardcore bed is usually from 100 to 300 mm thick.

The hardcore bed serves as a solid working base for building and as a bed for the concrete oversite. If the materials of the hardcore are hard and irregular in shape they will not be a ready path for moisture to rise by capillarity. Materials for hardcore should, therefore, be clean and free from old plaster or clay which in contact with broken brick or gravel would present a ready narrow capillary path for moisture to rise.

The materials used for hardcore should be chemically inert and not appreciably affected by water. Some materials used for hardcore, for example colliery spoil, contain soluble sulphate that in combination with water combine with cement and cause concrete to disintegrate. Other materials such as shale may expand and cause lifting and cracking of concrete. A method of testing materials for soluble sulphate is described in Building Research Station (BRS) Digest 174.

The materials used for hardcore are:

-  Brick of tile rubble, Concrete rubble, Gravel and crushed hard rock, Chalk.

-  Blinding.

Oversite concrete - Portland Cement.

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When Portland cement was first continuously produced, towards the end of the nineteenth century, it became practical to cover the site of buildings with a layer of concrete as a solid level base for floors and as a barrier to rising damp. From the early part of the twentieth century it became accepted practice to cover the site of buildings with a layer of concrete some 100mm thick, the concrete oversite or oversite concrete. At the time, many ground floors of houses were formed as raised timber floors on oversite concrete with the space below the floor ventilated against stagnant damp air.

With the shortage of timber that followed the Second World War, the raised timber ground floor was abandoned and the majority of ground floors were formed as solid, ground supported floors with the floor finish laid on the concrete oversite. At the time it was accepted practice to form a continuous horizontal damp-proof course, some 150 mm above ground level, in all walls with foundations in the ground.

With the removal of vegetable top soil the level of the soil inside the building would be from 100 to 300mm below the level of the ground outside. If a layer of concrete were then laid oversite its finished level would be up to 200 mm below outside ground level and up to 350 mm below the horizontal dpc in walls. There would then be considerable likelihood of moisture rising through the foundation walls, to make the inside walls below the dpc damp, as illustrated in Fig. 24.

It would, of course, be possible to make the concrete oversite up to 450 mm thick so that its top surface was level with the dpc and so prevent damp rising into the building. But this would be unnecessarily expensive. Instead, a layer of what is known as hardcore is spread oversite, of sufficient thickness to raise the level of the top of the concrete oversite to that of the dpc in walls. The purpose of the hardcore is primarily to raise the level of the concrete oversite for solid, ground supported floors.

The layer of concrete oversite will serve as a reasonably effective barrier to damp rising from the ground by absorbing some moisture from below. The moisture retained in the concrete will tend to make solid floor finishes cold underfoot and may adversely affect timber floor finishes. During the second half of the twentieth century it became accepted practice to form a waterproof membrane under, in or over the oversite concrete as a barrier to rising damp, against the cold underfoot feel of solid floors and to protect floor finishes. Having accepted the use of a damp-proof membrane it was then logical to unite this barrier to damp, to the damp-proof course in walls, by forming them at the same level or by running a vertical dpc up from the lower membrane to unite with the dpc in walls.

Fig. 24 Diagram to illustrate the need for hardcore.

Even with the damp-proof membrane there is some appreciable transfer of heat from heated buildings through the concrete and hardcore to the cold ground below. In Approved Document L to the Building Regulations is the inclusion of provision for insulation to ground floors for the conservation of fuel and power. The requirement can be met by a layer of insulating material under the site concrete, under a floor screed or under boarded or sheet floor finishes to provide a maximum U value of 0.45 W/m2K for the floor.

The requirement to the Building Regulations for the resistance of the passage of moisture to the inside of the building through floors is met if the ground is covered with dense concrete laid on a hardcore bed and a damp-proof membrane. The concrete should be at least 100 mm thick and composed of 50 kg of cement to not more than 0.11 m3 of fine aggregate and 0.16 m3 of coarse aggregate of BS 5328 mix ST2. The hardcore bed should be of broken brick or similar inert material, free from materials including water soluble sulphates in quantities which could damage the concrete. A damp-proof membrane, above or below the concrete, should ideally be continuous with the dpc in the walls.

It is practice on building sites to first build external and internal load bearing walls from the concrete foundation up to the level of the dpc, above ground, in walls. The hardcore bed and the oversite concrete are then spread and levelled within the external walls.

If the hardcore is spread over the area of the ground floor and into excavations for foundations and soft pockets of ground that have been removed and the hardcore is thoroughly consolidated by ramming, there should be very little consolidation settlement of the concrete ground supported floor slab inside walls. Where a floor slab has suffered settlement cracking, it has been due to an inadequate hardcore bed, poor filling of excavation for trenches or ground movement due to moisture changes. It has been suggested that the floor slab be cast into walls for edge support. This dubious practice, which required edge formwork support of slabs at cavities, will have the effect of promoting cracking of the slab, that may be caused by any slight consolidation settlement. Where appreciable settlement is anticipated it is best to reinforce the slab and build it into walls as a suspended reinforced concrete slab.

Laying Drains.

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Ground water (land) drains are laid in trenches at depths of 0.6 and 0.9 m in heavy soils and 0.9 to 1.2 m in light soils. The nominal bore of the pipes is usually 75 and 100 mm for main drains and 65 or 75 mm for branches.

The drain pipes are laid in the bed of the drain trench and surrounded with clinker, gravel or broken pervious rubble which is covered with inverted turf, brushwood or straw to separate the back fill from the pipes and their surround. Excavated material is back- filled into the drain trench up to the natural ground level.

The drain trench bottom may be shaped to take and contain the pipe or finished with a flat bed as illustrated in Fig. 22, depending on the nature of the subsoil and convenience in using a shaping tool. 

Fig. 22 Land drains.

Where drains are laid to collect mainly surface water the trenches are filled with clinker, gravel or broken rubble to drain water either to a drain or without a drain as illustrated in Fig. 23 in the form known as a French drain. Whichever is used will depend on the anticipated volume of water and the economy of dispensing with drainpipes. 

Fig. 23 (A) Surface water drain (B) French drain.

Drains - Natural system, Herring bone system, Grid system, Fan system.

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Natural system.-

This system, which is commonly used for field drains, uses the natural contours of the ground to improve run off of surface ground water to spine drains in natural valleys that fall towards ditches or streams. The drains are laid in irregular patterns to follow the natural contours as illustrated in Fig. 19A.

Fig 19 (A) Natural system. (B) Herring bone system.

Herring bone system.-

In this system, illustrated in Fig. l9B, fairly regular runs of drains connect to spine drains that connect to a ditch or main drain. This system is suited to shallow, mainly one way slopes that fall naturally towards a ditch or main drain and can be laid to a reasonably regular pattern to provide a broad area of drainage.

Grid system.-

This is an alternative to the herring bone system for draining one way slopes where branch drains are fed by short branches that fall towards a ditch or main drain, as illustrated in Fig. 20A. This system may be preferred to the herring bone system, where the run off is moderate, because there are fewer drain connections that may become blocked. 

Fig. 20 (A) Grid system. (B) Fan systems.

Fan system-

A fan shaped layout of short branches, illustrated in Fig. 20B, drains to spine drains that fan towards a soakaway, ditch or drain on narrow sites. A similar system is also used to drain the partially purified outflow from a septic tank, (see Volume 5), to an area of subsoil where further purification will be effected.
On sloping building sites on impervious soil where an existing system of land drains is already laid and where a new system is laid to prevent flooding a moat or cut off system is used around the new building to isolate it from general land drains, as illustrated in Fig. 21.

The moat or cut off system of drains is laid some distance from and around the new building to drain the ground between it and the new building and to carry water from the diverted land drains down the slope of the site. Plainly the moat drains should be clear of paved areas around the house.

Subsoil drains.

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Subsoil drains are used to improve the run off of surface water and the drainage of ground water to maintain the water table at some depth below the surface for the following reasons:

(1) to improve the stability of the ground
(2) to avoid surface flooding
(3) to alleviate or avoid dampness in basements
(4) to reduce humidity in the immediate vicinity of buildings.

Ground water, or land or field, drains are either open jointed or jointed, porous or perforated pipes of clayware, concrete, pitch fibre or plastic (see Volume 5). The pipes are laid in trenches to follow the fall of the ground, generally with branch drains discharging to a ditch, stream or drain.
On impervious subsoils, such as clay, it may be necessary to form a system of drains to improve the run off of surface water and drain subsoil to prevent flooding. Some of the drain systems used are natural, herring bone, grid, fan and moat or cut-off.

Site drainage.

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Surface water (stormwater) is the term used for natural water, that is rainwater that falls on the surface of the ground including open ground such as fields, paved areas and roofs. Rainwater that falls on paved areas and from roofs generally drains to surface water (stormwater) drains and thence to soakaways (see Volume 5), rivers, streams or the sea. Rainwater falling on natural open ground will in part lie on the surface of impermeable soils, evaporate to air, run off to streams and rivers and soak into the ground. On permeable soils much of the rainwater will soak into the ground as ground water.

Ground water is that water held in soils at and below the water table (which is the depth at which there is free water below the surface). The level of the water table will vary seasonally, being closest to the surface during rainy seasons and deeper during dry seasons when most evaporation to air occurs.

In Part C of the Building Regulations is a requirement for subsoil drainage, to avoid passage of ground moisture to the inside of a building or to avoid damage to the fabric of the building.

In Approved Document C to the Regulations are provisions for the need for subsoil drainage where the water table can rise to within 0.25 m of the lowest floor and where the water table is high in dry weather and the site of the building is surrounded by higher ground.

Paved areas are usually laid to falls to channels and gullies that drain to surface water drains.

Resistance to ground moisture.

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Up to about the middle of the nineteenth century the ground floor of most buildings was formed on compacted soil or dry fill on which was laid a surface of stone flagstones, brick or tile or a timber boarded floor nailed to battens bedded in the compacted soil or fill. In lowland areas and on poorly drained soils most of these floors were damp and cold underfoot.

A raised timber ground floor was sometimes used to provide a comparatively dry floor surface of boards, nailed to timber joists, raised above the packed soil or dry fill. To minimise the possibility of the joists being affected by rising damp it was usual to ventilate the space below the raised floor. The inflow of cold outside air for ventilation tended to make the floor cold underfoot.

Site preparation - Building.

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Turf and vegetable top soil should be removed from the ground to be covered by a building, to a depth sufficient to prevent later growth. Tree and bush roots, that might encourage later growth, are grubbed up and any pockets of soft compressible material, that might affect the stability of the building, are removed. The reasons for removing this vegetable soil are firstly to prevent plants, shrubs or trees from attempting to grow under the concrete. In growing, even the smallest of plant life exerts considerable pressure, which would quite quickly rupture the concrete oversite. The second reason for removing the vegetable top soil is that it is generally soft and compressible and readily retains moisture which would cause concrete over it to be damp at all times. The depth of vegetable top soil varies and on some sites it may be necessary to remove 300 mm or more vegetable top soil.

In practice most of the vegetable top soil over a building site is effectively moved by excavations for foundations, levelling and drain and other service pipes to the extent that it may be necessary to remove top soil that remains within or around the confines of a building.

-  Site drainage.

-  Subsoil drains.

-  Drains - Natural system, Herring bone system, Grid system, Fan system.

-  Laying Drains.

Foundations on sloping sites.

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The natural surface of ground is rarely level to the extent that there may be an appreciable slope either across or along or both across and along the site of most buildings.

On sloping sites an initial decision to be made is whether the ground floor is to be above ground at the highest point or partly sunk below ground as illustrated in Fig. 15.

Where the ground floor is to be at or just above ground level at the highest point, it is necessary to import some dry fill material such as broken brick or concrete hardcore to raise the level of the oversite concrete and floor. This fill will be placed, spread and consolidated up to the external wall once it has been built. 

Fig. 15 Fill an cut and fill.

The consolidated fill will impose some horizontal pressure on the wall. To make sure that the stability of the wall is adequate to withstand this lateral pressure it is recommended practice that the thickness of the wall should be at least a quarter of the height of the fill bearing on it as illustrated in Fig. 16. The thickness of a cavity wall is taken as the combined thickness of the two leaves unless the cavity is filed with concrete when the overall thickness is taken.

To reduce the amount of fill necessary under solid floors on sloping sites a system of cut and fill may be used as illustrated in Fig. 15. The disadvantage of this arrangement is that the ground floor is below ground level at the highest point and it is necessary to form an excavated dry area to collect and drain surface water that would otherwise run up to the wall and cause problems of dampness.

To economise in excavation and foundation walling on sloping sites where the subsoil, such as gravel and sand, is compact it is practice to use a stepped foundation as illustrated in Fig. 17, which contrasts diagrammatically the reduction in excavation and foundation walling of a level and a stepped foundation.

Figure 18 is an illustration of the stepped foundation for a small building on a sloping site where the subsoil is reasonably compact near the surface and will not be affected by volume changes. The foundation is stepped up the slope to minimise excavation and walling below ground. The foundation is stepped so that each step is no higher than the thickness of the concrete foundation and the foundation at the higher level overlaps the lower foundation by at least 300 mm. 

Fig. 16 Solid filling.

The load bearing walls are raised and the foundation trenches around the walls backfilled with selected soil from the excavation. The concrete oversite and solid ground floor may be cast on granular fill no more than 600 mm deep or cast or placed as a suspended reinforced concrete slab. The drains shown at the back of the trench fill are laid to collect and drain water to the sides of the building. 

Fig. 17 Foundation on sloping site.

Fig. 18 Stepped foundation.

Raft foundation on sloping site.

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On sites where the slope of the ground is such that there is an appreciable fall in the surface across the width or length of a building, and a raft foundation is to be used, because of the poor bearing capacity of subsoil, it is necessary either to cut into the surface or provide additional fill under the building or a combination of both to provide a level base for the raft.

It is advisable to minimise the extent of disturbance of the soft or uncertain subsoil. Where the slope is shallow and the design and use of the building allows, a stepped raft may be used down the slope, as illustrated in Fig.14.

A stepped, wide toe, reinforced concrete raft is formed with the step or steps made at the point of a load bearing internal wall or at a division wall between compartments or occupations. The drains under the raft are to relieve and discharge surface water running down the slope that might otherwise be trapped against steps and promote dampness in the building.

The level raft illustrated in Fig. 14 is cast on imported granular fill that is spread, consolidated and levelled as a base for the raft. The disadvantage of this is the cost of the additional granular fill and the advantage a level bed of uniform consistency under the raft.

As an alternative the system of cut and fill may be used to reduce the volume of imported fill.

Raft foundations are usually formed on ground of soft subsoil or made up ground where the bearing capacity is low or uncertain, to minimise settlement. There is some possibility of there being some slight movement of the ground under the building which would fracture drains and other service pipes entering the building through the raft. Service pipes rising through the raft should run through collars, cast in the concrete, which will allow some movement of the raft without fracturing service pipes. 

Fig. 14 Raft on sloping site.

Raft foundation.

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A raft foundation consists of a raft of reinforced concrete under the whole of a building. This type of foundation is described as a raft in the sense that the concrete raft is cast on the surface of the ground which supports it, as water does a raft, and the foundation is not fixed by foundations carried down into the subsoil.

Raft foundations may be used for buildings on compressible ground such as very soft clay, alluvial deposits and compressible fill material where strip, pad or pile foundations would not provide a stable foundation without excessive excavation. The reinforced concrete raft is designed to transmit the whole load of the building from the raft to the ground where the small spread loads will cause little if any appreciable settlement.
The two types of raft foundation commonly used are the flat raft and the wide toe raft.

The flat slab raft is of uniform thickness under the whole of the building and reinforced to spread the loads from the walls uniformly over the under surface to the ground. This type of raft may be used under small buildings such as bungalows and two storey houses where the comparatively small loads on foundations can be spread safely and economically under the rafts.

The concrete raft is reinforced top and bottom against both upward and downward bending. Vegetable top soil is removed and a blinding layer of concrete 50 mm thick is spread and levelled to provide a base on which to cast the concrete raft. A waterproof membrane is laid, on the dry concrete blinding, against moisture rising into the raft. The top and bottom reinforcement is supported and spaced preparatory to placing the concrete which is spread, consolidated and finished level.

When the reinforced concrete raft has dried and developed sufficient strength the walls are raised as illustrated in Fig. 12. The concrete raft is usually at least 150 mm thick. 

Fig. 12 Flat slab raft.

The concrete raft may be at ground level or finished just below the surface for appearance sake. Where floor finishes are to be laid on the raft a 50 mm thick layer of concrete is spread over the raft, between the walls, to raise the level and provide a level, smooth finish for floor coverings. As an alternative a raised floor may be constructed on top of the raft to raise the floor above ground.

A flat slab recommended for building in areas subject to mining subsidence is similar to the flat slab, but cast on a bed of fine granular material 150 mm thick so that the raft is not keyed to the ground and is therefore unaffected by horizontal ground strains.

Where the ground has poor compressibility and the loads on the foundations would require a thick, uneconomic flat slab, it is usual to cast the raft as a wide toe raft foundation. The raft is cast with a reinforced concrete, stiffening edge beam from which a reinforced concrete toe extends as a base for the external leaf of a cavity wall as shown in Fig. 13. The slab is thickened under internal load bearing walls.

Vegetable top soil is removed and the exposed surface is cut away to roughly form the profile of the underside of the slab. As necessary 100 mm of hardcore or concrete is spread under the area of the raft and a 50 mm layer of blinding concrete is spread, shaped and levelled as a base for the raft and toes. A waterproof membrane is laid on the dried concrete blinding and the steel reinforcement fixed in position and supported preparatory to placing, compacting and levelling the concrete raft.

The external cavity and internal solid walls are raised off the concrete raft once it has developed sufficient strength. The extended toe of the edge beam is shaped so that the external brick outer leaf of the cavity wall is finished below ground for appearance sake. A floor finish is laid on 50 mm concrete finish or a raised floor constructed. 

Fig. 13 Edge beam raft.

Pad foundations.

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On made up ground and ground with poor bearing capacity where a firm, natural bed of, for example, gravel or sand is some few metres below the surface, it may be economic to excavate for isolated piers of brick or concrete to support the load of buildings of some four storeys in height. The piers will be built at the angles, intersection of walls and under the more heavily loaded wall such as that between windows up the height of the building.

Pits are excavated down to the necessary level, the sides of the excavation temporarily supported and isolated pads of concrete are cast in the bottom of the pits. Brick piers or reinforced concrete piers are built or cast on the pad foundations up to the underside of the reinforced concrete beams that support walls as illustrated in Fig. 11. The ground beams or foundation beams may be just below or at ground level, the walls being raised off the beams.

The advantage of this system of foundation is that pockets of tipped stone or brick and concrete rubble that would obstruct bored piling may be removed as the pits are excavated and that the nature of the subsoil may be examined as the pits are dug to select a level of sound subsoil. This advantage may well be justification for this labour intensive and costly form of construction. 

Fig. 11 Pad foundation.

Short bored pile foundation.

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Where the subsoil is of firm, shrinkable clay which is subject to volume change due to deep rooted vegetation for some depth below surface and where the subsoil is of soft or uncertain bearing capacity for some few metres below surface, it may be economic and satisfactory to use a system of short bored piles as a foundation.

Piles are concrete columns which are either precast and driven (hammered) into the ground or cast in holes that are augered (drilled) into the ground down to a level of a firm, stable stratum of subsoil.

The piles that are used as a foundation down to a level of some 4 m below the surface for small buildings are termed short bore, which refers to the comparatively short length of the piles as compared to the much longer piles used for larger buildings. Short bored piles are generally from 2 to 4 m long and from 250 to 350 mm diameter.

Holes are augered in the ground by hand or machine. An auger is a form of drill comprising a rotating shaft with cutting blades that cuts into the ground and is then withdrawn, with the excavated soil on the blades that are cleared of soil. The auger is again lowered into the ground and withdrawn, cleared of soil and the process repeated until the required depth is reached.

The advantage of this system of augered holes is that samples of the subsoil are withdrawn, from which the bearing capacity of the subsoil may be assessed. The piles may be formed of concrete by itself or, more usually, a light, steel cage of reinforcement is lowered into the hole and concrete poured or pumped into the hole and compacted to form a pile foundation.

The piles are cast below angles and intersection of load bearing walls and at intervals between to reduce the span and depth of the reinforced ground beam they are to support. A reinforced concrete ground beam is then cast over the piles as illustrated in Fig. 10. The ground beam is cast in a shallow trench on a 50 mm bed of ash with the reinforcement in the piles linked to that in the beams for continuity. The spacing of the piles depends on the loads to be supported and on economic sections of ground beam. 

Fig. 10 Short bored pile foundation.

Narrow strip (trench fill) foundation.

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Stiff clay subsoils have good bearing strength and are subject to seasonal volume change. Because of seasonal changes and the withdrawal of moisture by deep rooted vegetation it is practice to adopt a foundation depth of at least 0,9 m to provide a stable foundation.

Because of the good bearing capacity of the clay the foundation may need to be little wider than the thickness of the wall to be supported. It would be laborious and uneconomic to excavate trenches wide enough for laying bricks down to the required level of a strip foundation.

Practice today is to use a mechanical excavator to take out the clay down to the required depth of at least 0.9 m below surface and immediately fill the trenches with concrete up to a level just below finished ground level, as illustrated in Fig. 9. The width of the trench is determined by the width of the excavator bucket available, which should not be less than the minimum required width of foundation.

The trench is filled with concrete as soon as possible so that the clay bed exposed does not dry out and shrink and against the possibility of the trench sides falling in, particularly in wet weather.

With the use of mechanical excavating equipment to dig the trenches and to move the excavated soil and spread it over other parts of the site or cart it from site, and the use of ready mixed concrete to fill the trenches this is the most expedient, economic and satisfactory method of making foundations on stiff, shrinkage subsoils for small buildings.

Fig. 9 Narrow trench fill foundation.

Wide strip foundation.

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Strip foundations on subsoils with poor bearing capacity, such as soft sandy clays, may need to be considerably wider than the wall they support to spread the load to a sufficient area of subsoil for stability.

The concrete strip could be as thick as the projection of the strip each side of the wall which would result in concrete of considerable uneconomic thickness to avoid the danger of failure by shear.

The alternative is to form a strip of reinforced concrete, illustrated in Fig. 8, which could be no more than 150 mm thick.

The reason for the use of reinforcement of steel in concrete is that concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. The effect of the downward pressure of the wall above and the supporting pressure of the soil below is to make the concrete strip bend upwards at the edges, creating tensile stress in the bottom and compressive stress under the wall. These opposing pressures will tend to cause the shear cracking illustrated in Fig. 7. It is to reinforce and strengthen concrete in tension that steel reinforcing bars are cast in the lower edge because steel is strong in tension. There has to be a sufficient cover of concrete below the steel reinforcing rods to protect them from rusting and losing strength.

Fig. 8 Wide strip foundation.

Foundation Construction - Strip foundations.

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Strip foundations consist of a continuous strip, usually of concrete, formed centrally under load bearing walls. This continuous strip serves as a level base on which the wall is built and is of such a width as is necessary to spread the load on the foundations to an area of subsoil capable of supporting the load without undue compaction. Concrete is the material principally used today for foundations as it can readily be placed, spread and levelled in foundation trenches, to provide a base for walls, and it develops adequate compressive strength as it hardens to support the load on foundations. Before Portland cement was manufactured, strip foundations of brick were common, the brick foundation being built directly off firm subsoil or built on a bed of natural stones.

The width of a concrete strip foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the subsoil and the load on the foundations. The greater the bearing capacity of the subsoil the less the width of the foundation for the same load.

A table in Approved Document A to the Building Regulations sets out the recommended minimum width of concrete strip foundations related to six specified categories of subsoil and calculated total loads on foundations as a form of ready reckoner. The widths vary from 250 mm for a load of not more than 20 kN/linear metre of wall on compact gravel or sand through 450 mm for loads of 40 kN/linear metre on firm clay, to 850 mm for loads not exceeding 30 kN/linear metre on soft silt, clay or sandy clay.

The dimensions given are indicative of what might be acceptable in the conditions specified rather than absolutes to be accepted regardless of the conditions prevailing on individual sites.

The strip foundation for a cavity external wall and a solid internal, load bearing wall illustrated in Fig. 6 would be similar to the width recommended in the Advisory Document for a firm clay subsoil when the load on the foundations is no more than 50 kN/linear metre. In practice the linear load on the foundation of a house would be appreciably less than 50 kN/linear metre and the foundation may well be made wider than the minimum requirement for the convenience of filling a wider trench with concrete for the convenience of laying brick below ground. 

Fig. 6 Strip foundation.

The least thickness of a concrete strip foundation is determined in part by the size of the aggregate used in the concrete, the need for a minimum thickness of concrete so that it does not dry too quickly and lose strength and to avoid failure of the concrete by shear.

If the thickness of a concrete strip foundation were appreciably less than its projection each side of a wall the concrete might fail through the development of shear cracks by the weight of the wall causing a 45° crack as illustrated in Fig. 7. If this occurred the bearing surface of the foundation on the ground would be reduced to less than that necessary for stability.

Shear is caused by the two opposing forces of the wall and the ground acting on and tearing or shearing the concrete as scissors or shears cut or shear materials apart.

Fig. 7 Shear failure.

Functional Requirement - Strenght and stability – Foundation.

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The functional requirement of a foundation is: strength and stability.

The requirements from the Building Regulations are, as regards ‘Loading’, that ‘The building shall be so constructed that the combined, dead, imposed and wind loads are sustained and transmitted to the ground safely and without causing such deflection or deformation of any part of the building, or such movement of the ground, as will impair the stability of any part of another building’ and as regards ‘ground movement’ that ‘The building shall be so constructed that movements of the subsoil caused by swelling, shrinkage or freezing will not impair the stability of any part of the building’.

A foundation should be designed to transmit the loads of the building to the ground so that there is, at most, only a limited settlement of the building into the ground. A building whose foundation is on sound rock will suffer no measurable settlement whereas a building on soil will suffer settlement into the ground by the compression of the soil under the foundation loads.

Foundations should be designed so that settlement into the ground is limited and uniform under the whole of the building. Some settlement of a building on a soil foundation is inevitable as the increasing loads on the foundation, as the building is erected, compress the soil. This settlement should be limited to avoid damage to service pipes and drains connected to the building. Bearing capacities for various rocks and soils are assumed and these capacities should not be exceeded in the design of the foundation to limit settlement.

In theory, if the foundation soil were uniform and foundation bearing pressure were limited, the building would settle into the ground uniformly as the building was erected, and to a limited extent, and there would be no possibility of damage to the building or its connected services or drains. In practice there are various possible ground movements under the foundation of a building that may cause one part of the foundation to settle at a different rate and to a different extent than another part of the foundation.

This different or differential settlement must be limited to avoid damage to the superstructure of the building. Some structural forms can accommodate differential or relative foundation movement without damage more than others. A brick wall can accommodate limited differential movement of the foundation or the structure by slight movement of the small brick units and mortar joints, without affecting the function of the wall, whereas a rigid framed structure with rigid panels cannot to the same extent. Foundations are designed to limit differential settlement, the degree to which this limitation has to be controlled or accommodated in the structure depends on the nature of the structure supported by the foundation.